A PICTORIAL HISTORY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PANAMA CANAL

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The building of the Panama Canal was one of the most grandiose, dramatic, and sweeping adventures of all time. Spanning nearly half a century, from its beginnings by a France in pursuit of glory to its completion by the United States on the eve of World War I, it enlisted men, nations, and money on a scale never before seen. Apart from the great wars, it was the largest, costliest single effort ever mounted anywhere on earth, and it affected the lives of tens of thousands of people throughout the world. Some 60,000 workers took part in the Panama Canal's construction.  Most of the Canal's workforce during the US construction period in the early 20th century arrived in Panama from the West Indies, on board the steamship Cristobal.

The failed French attempt to build a trans-oceanic canal across the isthmus saw a large scale recruitment of labour from the West Indies.  The loss of life from yellow fever and malaria proved to be staggering.  Over 22,000 workers lost their lives during these years. Some West Indian workers decided to remain in Panama while others returned home.

The building of the Panama Canal under the direction of the American Panama Canal Company once more saw a large recruited work force. Panama's population was relatively sparse, and the Americans discovered that there was no surplus labour anywhere in the republic for the Canal's construction. It became clear that the higher grades of skilled labour would have to come from the United States, whilst for the rest of the workforce the islands of the Caribbean were a logical source.  However, the Caribbean governments were reluctant to allow recruiting, because at the end of the French period of construction, many of the West Indian labourers had been stranded in Panama, and they had to be repatriated at their governments' expense.

The Barbados government finally agreed to large-scale recruitment and eventually there were some 19,900 Barbadian labourers working on the Canal project. This was reportedly some 10 per cent of the population of Barbados, and nearly 40 per cent of the island's adult men. Later, workers were also recruited from Martinique and Guadeloupe. Jamaica refused to allow any recruiting, and placed a tax of one pound sterling on anyone wishing to work in Panama. This meant that the Jamaican workers in Panama were mostly skilled workers, as only they could afford the tax.

The Americans had originally favored English speaking workers from the British West Indies. They were hard workers who understood and spoke the language of the North American employer. They were also regarded as “cheap labor” and faced racial discrimination not only by North Americans but by Panamanians as well. As a result, West Indians built up their own “insular culture” separate from their Hispanic and American neighbors. Stressing the maintenance of their traditional ways, they also strongly believed that education would lead to greater advancements for them and their children.

During the early years of the building of the canal most U.S. citizens working on the canal preferred to be paid in gold. West Indians however were paid in silver. From this developed the classifications of a “gold” or “silver” employee. The terminology was eventually extended to all of the Canal Zone. It basically took the form of racial segregation similar to that at the time in the American south. Water fountains, rest rooms and other public facilities were designated “gold” or “silver” and black and white communities in the Canal Zone lived in segregated communities.

Separate pay scales for blacks and non-blacks remained in force until the signing of the Panama Canal Treaty in 1977. The so called “gold” and “silver” classifications that were used to keep the canal segregated were discontinued in the 1960’s. But the “gold” and “silver” term of reference was still in use for many years after its official discontinuance, much to the resentment of the West Indian community.

During the building of the canal laborers by the thousands came from Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad. By 1910 the PCC employed more than 50,000 workers, three-quarters of them were West Indians. When the canal was completed many of these workers stayed on to work for the Panama Canal Company. They made their homes in the American controlled Canal Zone as well as in and around Panama City. Only employees of the PCC were allowed to live in the Canal Zone. In all, another 100,000 people migrated to Panama during the construction era, adding to the diversity of Panama’s population.

PANAMA CANAL LABOURERS DURING THE AMERICAN CONSTRUCTION ERA
1904 Cartoon of 6.5 million in gold (first instalment of Panama Canal purchase)	1908 Pay Car	Canal workers	Sullivan Channeller Gatun Locks 1909	Labourers from Barbados 1909	Italian Labourers  Dirt Train Culebra Cut
Work gang Forebay Gatun Locks 1909	Work gang Gatun Locks 1909	Boiler room Gatun 1909 new power plant	Gatun Locks concrete mixers 1909	Laying pipe in concrete mixing building Gatun 1909	Hunting party 1909
Roughnecks 1909	USSP export Company Workers 1909	Turbo generator Gatun 1909	Pay car at Gatun 1909	Canal Workers group photo	Repairing concrete mixers Gatun 1909
Cement plant workers	Construction crews		Meal break	Construction workers	Dizzy Heights
ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
John Stevens & Theodore Roosevelt	Goethels addressing employees	Goethels and wife	Goethels and staff	Goethels and Taft	President Taft tour of locks 1910
American Engineers group photo	Engineers Panama Cana	Drafting force Engineering Division Atlantic	Drafting room	Johnson & Morris Engineers 1909	Goethels 1914

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